Three years after Liu, European courts are increasingly treating extradition to China as a structural Article 3 problem, not as an ordinary cooperation file. This post maps the emerging case law, Spain’s exceptional reliance on Chinese assurances, and Beijing’s renewed efforts to keep extradition channels open.

Italy refused Brazil’s (first) extradition request for Carla Zambelli, not because of her Italian citizenship or the political nature of the case, but because the conviction to be enforced raised a serious doubt about judicial impartiality.