In Rugu and Aucroix, the CJEU clarifies what must happen after an executing State refuses an EAW because surrender would expose the person to detention conditions contrary to Article 4 of the Charter. Refusal of surrender is no longer the end of the matter.

Three years after Liu, European courts are increasingly treating extradition to China as a structural Article 3 problem, not as an ordinary cooperation file. This post maps the emerging case law, Spain’s exceptional reliance on Chinese assurances, and Beijing’s renewed efforts to keep extradition channels open.